Modern sociology
is classical
because its theory is still classical. Like classical sociologists,
modem sociologists still nearly always explain human behavior teleologically-as
a means to an end. They still nearly always explain human behavior
psychologically-as something that arises at least partly in the human mind. And
they still nearly always explain human behavior individualistically-as the
behavior of people. Although social factors (such as the distribution of
resources, the structure of relationships, and the content of culture) usually
play a role in sociological explanations, their relevance is nearly always
teleological, psychological, and individualistic.
Teleology is the superparadigm of sociology (see Black 1995: 861-63). Virtually
all sociological theories assume, assert, or imply the existence of human goals
and explain human behavior accordingly. Some attribute goals to groups rather
than individuals, but the explanations remain teleological, a matter of means
and ends. Human behavior is said to be the successful or unsuccessful
fulfillment of a motive, preference, purpose, interest, value, need, or
function by an individual, aggregate, or group. Criminal behavior is the
conscious or unconscious pursuit of a criminal's goal, for example, and the
same applies to political, religious, economic, and every other kind of
behavior in every setting, whether a face-to-face encounter, family,
organization, institution, society, or international community.
Virtually all sociological explanation is explicitly or implicitly
psychological and individualistic as well (see Homans 1964). Such is the classical
tradition. Weber asserts, for instance, that sociology is the
"interpretive understanding
of social action" and that "subjective understanding is the
specific characteristic of sociological knowledge" ([1922] 1978, Vol. 1:
4, 15, 13). Durkheim asserts that "everything in social life rests on
opinion. . . . We can make opinion an object of study and create a science of
it; that is what sociology
primarily consists in" ([1912] 1995: 439). Both continually refer to human
psychology-subjectivity-in their writings. Examples are Weber's theory of the
origin of capitalism ([1904-05] 1958) and Durkheim's theory of suicide ([1897]
1951), two of the most famous and revered works of classical sociology. In
particular, both address the psychology of goal-seeking individuals. And
virtually all modem sociologists do the same. What they call social behavior is
nearly always individual behavior, what they call social action is nearly
always personal action, and what they call social theory is nearly always
psychological theory (see Black 1995: 848-50). If published today, Weber's and
Durkheim's major works would still be widely celebrated.
Expect no sociological revolution until sociology abandons the classical
tradition. Expect nothing profoundly new or wildly exciting-no breakthroughs in
the understanding
of human behavior. Expect nothing shocking, nothing controversial. Expect only
more of the same, a repetition of old ideas, an involution rather than a
revolution in sociological theory. Classical sociology was new and exciting a
century ago, but now it is a dead end. It tells the same story over and over:
The social environment has this or that impact on how people pursue their
goals. Moreover, whatever teleological, psychological, and individualistic sociology
may have accomplished in the past, sociologists have always been largely unable
to explain the spectacular diversity of social life across the world and across
history in the countless societies that have existed-the diversity of culture,
for example, including the diversity of religion and art, the diversity of
conflict and violence, of families and other groups, political life, economic
life, sexuality, or sport. And where is the sociological theory applicable to
every conceivable instance of anything across the social universe, past,
present, or future? Where is the theory unimaginable a century or half-century
ago? Because it follows the classical tradition, modernsociology is
unable to discover anything radically new. Everything is completely normal.
Nothing amazes anyone. The field is frozen in scientific time.
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